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Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9702) revision

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What that number is: a count of statements this library teaches somewhere. It is not a depth audit, so a mapped row means the topic is here and not that it is covered to the length the paper may demand. Papers 3 and 5 assess practical skills separately and are not in this count. Where you find a row thinner than your exam needs, tell us and it goes on the list.

1 · PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

1.1.1 Understand that all physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit · SI units and prefixes
1.1.2 Make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus · Estimation and orders of magnitude
1.2.1 Recall the following SI base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A), temperature (K) · SI units and prefixes
1.2.2 Express derived units as products or quotients of the SI base units and use the derived units for quantities listed in this syllabus as appropriate · SI units and prefixes
1.2.3 Use SI base units to check the homogeneity of physical equations · SI units and prefixes
1.2.4 Recall and use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T) · SI units and prefixes
1.3.1 Understand and explain the effects of systematic errors (including zero errors) and random errors in measurements · Uncertainty and error
1.3.2 Understand the distinction between precision and accuracy · Uncertainty and error
1.3.3 Assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of absolute or percentage uncertainties · Uncertainty and error
1.4.1 Understand the difference between scalar and vector quantities and give examples of scalar and vector quantities included in the syllabus · Scalars and vectors
1.4.2 Add and subtract coplanar vectors · Scalars and vectors
1.4.3 Represent a vector as two perpendicular components · Scalars and vectors

2 · KINEMATICS

2.1.1 Define and use distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.2 Use graphical methods to represent distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.3 Determine displacement from the area under a velocity–time graph · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.4 Determine velocity using the gradient of a displacement–time graph · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.5 Determine acceleration using the gradient of a velocity–time graph · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.6 Derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations that represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.7 Solve problems using equations that represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field without air resistance · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
2.1.8 Describe an experiment to determine the acceleration of free fall using a falling object · Determining g by free fall
2.1.9 Describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform acceleration in a perpendicular direction · Projectile motion

3 · DYNAMICS

3.1.1 Understand that mass is the property of an object that resists change in motion · Mass and weight
3.1.2 Recall F = ma and solve problems using it, understanding that acceleration and resultant force are always in the same direction · Newton's laws and the resultant force
3.1.3 Define and use linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity · Momentum and impulse
3.1.4 Define and use force as rate of change of momentum · Momentum and impulse
3.1.5 State and apply each of Newton's laws of motion · Newton's laws and the resultant force
3.1.6 Describe and use the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass and recall that the weight of an object is equal to the product of its mass and the acceleration of free fall · Mass and weight
3.2.1 Show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous/drag forces including air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required, and a simple model of drag force increasing as speed increases is sufficient) · Drag and terminal speed
3.2.2 Describe and explain qualitatively the motion of objects in a uniform gravitational field with air resistance · Drag and terminal speed
3.2.3 Understand that objects moving against a resistive force may reach a terminal (constant) velocity · Drag and terminal speed
3.3.1 State the principle of conservation of momentum · Momentum and impulse
3.3.2 Apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems, including elastic and inelastic interactions between objects in both one and two dimensions (knowledge of the concept of coefficient of restitution is not required) · Momentum and impulse
3.3.3 Recall that, for an elastic collision, total kinetic energy is conserved and the relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of separation · Momentum and impulse
3.3.4 Understand that, while momentum of a system is always conserved in interactions between objects, some change in kinetic energy may take place · Momentum and impulse

4 · FORCES, DENSITY AND PRESSURE

4.1.1 Understand that the weight of an object may be taken as acting at a single point known as its centre of gravity · Moments and equilibrium
4.1.2 Define and apply the moment of a force · Moments and equilibrium
4.1.3 Understand that a couple is a pair of forces that acts to produce rotation only · Moments and equilibrium
4.1.4 Define and apply the torque of a couple · Moments and equilibrium
4.2.1 State and apply the principle of moments · Moments and equilibrium
4.2.2 Understand that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a system is in equilibrium · Moments and equilibrium
4.2.3 Use a vector triangle to represent coplanar forces in equilibrium · Scalars and vectors
4.3.1 Define and use density · Density and Hooke's law
4.3.2 Define and use pressure · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity
4.3.3 Derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation for hydrostatic pressure Δp = ρgΔh · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity
4.3.4 Use the equation Δp = ρgΔh · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity
4.3.5 Understand that the upthrust acting on an object in a fluid is due to a difference in hydrostatic pressure · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity
4.3.6 Calculate the upthrust acting on an object in a fluid using the equation F = ρgV (Archimedes' principle) · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity

5 · WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

5.1.1 Understand the concept of work, and recall and use work done = force × displacement in the direction of the force · Work, energy and power
5.1.2 Recall and apply the principle of conservation of energy · Conservation of energy
5.1.3 Recall and understand that the efficiency of a system is the ratio of useful energy output from the system to the total energy input · Work, energy and power
5.1.4 Use the concept of efficiency to solve problems · Work, energy and power
5.1.5 Define power as work done per unit time · Work, energy and power
5.1.6 Solve problems using P = W/t · Work, energy and power
5.1.7 Derive P = Fv and use it to solve problems · Work, energy and power
5.2.1 Derive, using W = Fs, the formula ΔEP = mgΔh for gravitational potential energy changes in a uniform gravitational field · Conservation of energy
5.2.2 Recall and use the formula ΔEP = mgΔh for gravitational potential energy changes in a uniform gravitational field · Conservation of energy
5.2.3 Derive, using the equations of motion, the formula for kinetic energy EK = ½mv² · Conservation of energy
5.2.4 Recall and use EK = ½mv² · Conservation of energy

6 · DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

6.1.1 Understand that deformation is caused by tensile or compressive forces (forces and deformations will be assumed to be in one dimension only) · Density and Hooke's law
6.1.2 Understand and use the terms load, extension, compression and limit of proportionality · Density and Hooke's law
6.1.3 Recall and use Hooke's law · Density and Hooke's law
6.1.4 Recall and use the formula for the spring constant k = F/x · Density and Hooke's law
6.1.5 Define and use the terms stress, strain and the Young modulus · Stress, strain and the Young modulus
6.1.6 Describe an experiment to determine the Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire · Stress, strain and the Young modulus
6.2.1 Understand and use the terms elastic deformation, plastic deformation and elastic limit · Density and Hooke's law
6.2.2 Understand that the area under the force–extension graph represents the work done · Density and Hooke's law
6.2.3 Determine the elastic potential energy of a material deformed within its limit of proportionality from the area under the force–extension graph · Density and Hooke's law
6.2.4 Recall and use EP = ½Fx = ½kx² for a material deformed within its limit of proportionality · Density and Hooke's law

7 · WAVES

7.1.1 Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes, springs and ripple tanks · Progressive waves
7.1.2 Understand and use the terms displacement, amplitude, phase difference, period, frequency, wavelength and speed · Progressive waves
7.1.3 Understand the use of the time-base and y-gain of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) to determine frequency and amplitude · Progressive waves
7.1.4 Derive, using the definitions of speed, frequency and wavelength, the wave equation v = fλ · Progressive waves
7.1.5 Recall and use v = fλ · Progressive waves
7.1.6 Understand that energy is transferred by a progressive wave · Progressive waves
7.1.7 Recall and use intensity = power/area and intensity ∝ (amplitude)² for a progressive wave · Progressive waves
7.2.1 Compare transverse and longitudinal waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
7.2.2 Analyse and interpret graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
7.3.1 Understand that when a source of sound waves moves relative to a stationary observer, the observed frequency is different from the source frequency (understanding of the Doppler effect for a stationary source and a moving observer is not required) · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
7.3.2 Use the expression fo = fsv/(v ± vs) for the observed frequency when a source of sound waves moves relative to a stationary observer · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
7.4.1 State that all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel with the same speed c in free space · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
7.4.2 Recall the approximate range of wavelengths in free space of the principal regions of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to γ-rays · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
7.4.3 Recall that wavelengths in the range 400–700 nm in free space are visible to the human eye · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
7.5.1 Understand that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
7.5.2 Recall and use Malus's law (I = I₀ cos²θ) to calculate the intensity of a plane-polarised electromagnetic wave after transmission through a polarising filter or a series of polarising filters (calculation of the effect of a polarising filter on the intensity of an unpolarised wave is not required) · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation

8 · SUPERPOSITION

8.1.1 Explain and use the principle of superposition · Stationary waves
8.1.2 Show an understanding of experiments that demonstrate stationary waves using microwaves, stretched strings and air columns (it will be assumed that end corrections are negligible; knowledge of the concept of end corrections is not required) · Stationary waves
8.1.3 Explain the formation of a stationary wave using a graphical method, and identify nodes and antinodes · Stationary waves
8.1.4 Understand how wavelength may be determined from the positions of nodes or antinodes of a stationary wave · Stationary waves
8.2.1 Explain the meaning of the term diffraction · Diffraction and the single slit
8.2.2 Show an understanding of experiments that demonstrate diffraction including the qualitative effect of the gap width relative to the wavelength of the wave; for example diffraction of water waves in a ripple tank · Diffraction and the single slit
8.3.1 Understand the terms interference and coherence · Interference and Young's double slit
8.3.2 Show an understanding of experiments that demonstrate two-source interference using water waves in a ripple tank, sound, light and microwaves · Interference and Young's double slit
8.3.3 Understand the conditions required if two-source interference fringes are to be observed · Interference and Young's double slit
8.3.4 Recall and use λ = ax/D for double-slit interference using light · Interference and Young's double slit
8.4.1 Recall and use d sin θ = nλ · Diffraction gratings
8.4.2 Describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light (the structure and use of the spectrometer are not included) · Diffraction gratings

9 · ELECTRICITY

9.1.1 Understand that an electric current is a flow of charge carriers · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.1.2 Understand that the charge on charge carriers is quantised · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.1.3 Recall and use Q = It · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.1.4 Use, for a current-carrying conductor, the expression I = Anvq, where n is the number density of charge carriers · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.2.1 Define the potential difference across a component as the energy transferred per unit charge · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.2.2 Recall and use V = W/Q · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.2.3 Recall and use P = VI, P = I²R and P = V²/R · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
9.3.1 Define resistance · Current, charge and the direction problem
9.3.2 Recall and use V = IR · Current, charge and the direction problem · Current-voltage characteristics
9.3.3 Sketch the I–V characteristics of a metallic conductor at constant temperature, a semiconductor diode and a filament lamp · Current-voltage characteristics
9.3.4 Explain that the resistance of a filament lamp increases as current increases because its temperature increases · Current-voltage characteristics
9.3.5 State Ohm's law · Current-voltage characteristics
9.3.6 Recall and use R = ρL/A · Resistivity and superconductivity
9.3.7 Understand that the resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) decreases as the light intensity increases · Potential dividers
9.3.8 Understand that the resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases (it will be assumed that thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient) · Resistivity and superconductivity

10 · D.C. CIRCUITS

10.1.1 Recall and use the circuit symbols shown in section 6 of this syllabus · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.1.2 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing the circuit symbols shown in section 6 of this syllabus · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.1.3 Define and use the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source as energy transferred per unit charge in driving charge around a complete circuit · EMF and internal resistance
10.1.4 Distinguish between e.m.f. and potential difference (p.d.) in terms of energy considerations · EMF and internal resistance
10.1.5 Understand the effects of the internal resistance of a source of e.m.f. on the terminal potential difference · EMF and internal resistance
10.2.1 Recall Kirchhoff's first law and understand that it is a consequence of conservation of charge · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.2.2 Recall Kirchhoff's second law and understand that it is a consequence of conservation of energy · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.2.3 Derive, using Kirchhoff's laws, a formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.2.4 Use the formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.2.5 Derive, using Kirchhoff's laws, a formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in parallel · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.2.6 Use the formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in parallel · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.2.7 Use Kirchhoff's laws to solve simple circuit problems · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
10.3.1 Understand the principle of a potential divider circuit · Potential dividers
10.3.2 Recall and use the principle of the potentiometer as a means of comparing potential differences · Potential dividers
10.3.3 Understand the use of a galvanometer in null methods · Potential dividers
10.3.4 Explain the use of thermistors and light-dependent resistors in potential dividers to provide a potential difference that is dependent on temperature and light intensity · Potential dividers

11 · PARTICLE PHYSICS

11.1.1 Infer from the results of the α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small size of the nucleus · Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom
11.1.2 Describe a simple model for the nuclear atom to include protons, neutrons and orbital electrons · Constituents of the atom
11.1.3 Distinguish between nucleon number and proton number · Constituents of the atom
11.1.4 Understand that isotopes are forms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei · Constituents of the atom
11.1.5 Understand and use the notation AZX for the representation of nuclides · Constituents of the atom
11.1.6 Understand that nucleon number and charge are conserved in nuclear processes · Stable and unstable nuclei · Radioactive decay and half-life
11.1.7 Describe the composition, mass and charge of α-, β- and γ-radiations (both β− (electrons) and β⁺ (positrons) are included) · Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom
11.1.8 Understand that an antiparticle has the same mass but opposite charge to the corresponding particle, and that a positron is the antiparticle of an electron · Antimatter and photons
11.1.9 State that (electron) antineutrinos are produced during β− decay and (electron) neutrinos are produced during β⁺ decay · Conservation laws
11.1.10 Understand that α-particles have discrete energies but that β-particles have a continuous range of energies because (anti)neutrinos are emitted in β-decay · Stable and unstable nuclei
11.1.11 Represent α- and β-decay by a radioactive decay equation of the form ²³⁸₉₂U → ²³⁴₉₀Th + ⁴₂α · Stable and unstable nuclei · Radioactive decay and half-life
11.1.12 Use the unified atomic mass unit (u) as a unit of mass · Mass-energy and binding energy
11.2.1 Understand that a quark is a fundamental particle and that there are six flavours (types) of quark: up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom · Quarks and antiquarks
11.2.2 Recall and use the charge of each flavour of quark and understand that its respective antiquark has the opposite charge (no knowledge of any other properties of quarks is required) · Quarks and antiquarks
11.2.3 Recall that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles and describe protons and neutrons in terms of their quark composition · Quarks and antiquarks
11.2.4 Understand that a hadron may be either a baryon (consisting of three quarks) or a meson (consisting of one quark and one antiquark) · Quarks and antiquarks
11.2.5 Describe the changes to quark composition that take place during β− and β⁺ decay · Conservation laws
11.2.6 Recall that electrons and neutrinos are fundamental particles called leptons · Classification of particles

12 · MOTION IN A CIRCLE

12.1.1 Define the radian and express angular displacement in radians · Circular motion
12.1.2 Understand and use the concept of angular speed · Circular motion
12.1.3 Recall and use ω = 2π / T and v = rω · Circular motion
12.2.1 Understand that a force of constant magnitude that is always perpendicular to the direction of motion causes centripetal acceleration · Circular motion
12.2.2 Understand that centripetal acceleration causes circular motion with a constant angular speed · Circular motion
12.2.3 Recall and use a = rω² and a = v² / r · Circular motion
12.2.4 Recall and use F = mrω² and F = mv² / r · Circular motion

13 · GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

13.1.1 Understand that a gravitational field is an example of a field of force and define gravitational field as force per unit mass · Newton's law of gravitation
13.1.2 Represent a gravitational field by means of field lines · The field concept
13.2.1 Understand that, for a point outside a uniform sphere, the mass of the sphere may be considered to be a point mass at its centre · Newton's law of gravitation
13.2.2 Recall and use Newton's law of gravitation F = Gm₁m₂ / r² for the force between two point masses · Newton's law of gravitation
13.2.3 Analyse circular orbits in gravitational fields by relating the gravitational force to the centripetal acceleration it causes · Orbits and satellites
13.2.4 Understand that a satellite in a geostationary orbit remains at the same point above the Earth's surface, with an orbital period of 24 hours, orbiting from west to east, directly above the Equator · Orbits and satellites
13.3.1 Derive, from Newton's law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field, the equation g = GM / r² for the gravitational field strength due to a point mass · Newton's law of gravitation
13.3.2 Recall and use g = GM / r² · Newton's law of gravitation
13.3.3 Understand why g is approximately constant for small changes in height near the Earth's surface · The field concept
13.4.1 Define gravitational potential at a point as the work done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from infinity to the point · Gravitational potential
13.4.2 Use φ = –GM / r for the gravitational potential in the field due to a point mass · Gravitational potential
13.4.3 Understand how the concept of gravitational potential leads to the gravitational potential energy of two point masses and use Ep = –GMm / r · Gravitational potential

14 · TEMPERATURE

14.1.1 Understand that (thermal) energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
14.1.2 Understand that regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
14.2.1 Understand that a physical property that varies with temperature may be used for the measurement of temperature and state examples of such properties, including the density of a liquid, volume of a gas at constant pressure, resistance of a metal, e.m.f. of a thermocouple · Ideal gases and the gas laws
14.2.2 Understand that the scale of thermodynamic temperature does not depend on the property of any particular substance · Ideal gases and the gas laws
14.2.3 Convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius and recall that T / K = θ / °C + 273.15 · Ideal gases and the gas laws
14.2.4 Understand that the lowest possible temperature is zero kelvin on the thermodynamic temperature scale and that this is known as absolute zero · Ideal gases and the gas laws
14.3.1 Define and use specific heat capacity · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
14.3.2 Define and use specific latent heat and distinguish between specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporisation · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity

15 · IDEAL GASES

15.1.1 Understand that amount of substance is an SI base quantity with the base unit mol · SI units and prefixes
15.1.2 Use molar quantities where one mole of any substance is the amount containing a number of particles of that substance equal to the Avogadro constant NA · Ideal gases and the gas laws
15.2.1 Understand that a gas obeying pV ∝ T, where T is the thermodynamic temperature, is known as an ideal gas · Ideal gases and the gas laws
15.2.2 Recall and use the equation of state for an ideal gas expressed as pV = nRT, where n = amount of substance (number of moles) and as pV = NkT, where N = number of molecules · Ideal gases and the gas laws
15.2.3 Recall that the Boltzmann constant k is given by k = R / NA · Ideal gases and the gas laws
15.3.1 State the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases · Molecular kinetic theory
15.3.2 Explain how molecular movement causes the pressure exerted by a gas and derive and use the relationship pV = ⅓Nm<c²>, where <c²> is the mean-square speed (a simple model considering one-dimensional collisions and then extending to three dimensions using ⅓<c²> = <cx²> is sufficient) · Molecular kinetic theory
15.3.3 Understand that the root-mean-square speed cr.m.s. is given by √<c²> · Molecular kinetic theory
15.3.4 Compare pV = ⅓Nm<c²> with pV = NkT to deduce that the average translational kinetic energy of a molecule is (3/2)kT, and recall and use this expression · Molecular kinetic theory

16 · THERMODYNAMICS

16.1.1 Understand that internal energy is determined by the state of the system and that it can be expressed as the sum of a random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules of a system · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
16.1.2 Relate a rise in temperature of an object to an increase in its internal energy · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity · The first law of thermodynamics
16.2.1 Recall and use W = pΔV for the work done when the volume of a gas changes at constant pressure and understand the difference between the work done by the gas and the work done on the gas · The first law of thermodynamics
16.2.2 Recall and use the first law of thermodynamics ΔU = q + W expressed in terms of the increase in internal energy, the heating of the system (energy transferred to the system by heating) and the work done on the system · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity · The first law of thermodynamics

17 · OSCILLATIONS

17.1.1 Understand and use the terms displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency and phase difference in the context of oscillations, and express the period in terms of both frequency and angular frequency · Simple harmonic motion
17.1.2 Understand that simple harmonic motion occurs when acceleration is proportional to displacement from a fixed point and in the opposite direction · Simple harmonic motion
17.1.3 Use a = –ω²x and recall and use, as a solution to this equation, x = x₀ sin ωt · Simple harmonic motion
17.1.4 Use the equations v = v₀ cos ωt and v = ± ω √(x₀² − x²) · Simple harmonic motion
17.1.5 Analyse and interpret graphical representations of the variations of displacement, velocity and acceleration for simple harmonic motion · Simple harmonic motion
17.2.1 Describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during simple harmonic motion · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
17.2.2 Recall and use E = ½mω²x₀² for the total energy of a system undergoing simple harmonic motion · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
17.3.1 Understand that a resistive force acting on an oscillating system causes damping · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
17.3.2 Understand and use the terms light, critical and heavy damping and sketch displacement–time graphs illustrating these types of damping · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
17.3.3 Understand that resonance involves a maximum amplitude of oscillations and that this occurs when an oscillating system is forced to oscillate at its natural frequency · Forced vibrations and resonance

18 · ELECTRIC FIELDS

18.1.1 Understand that an electric field is an example of a field of force and define electric field as force per unit positive charge · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.1.2 Recall and use F = qE for the force on a charge in an electric field · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.1.3 Represent an electric field by means of field lines · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.2.1 Recall and use E = ΔV / Δd to calculate the field strength of the uniform field between charged parallel plates · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.2.2 Describe the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of charged particles · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.3.1 Understand that, for a point outside a spherical conductor, the charge on the sphere may be considered to be a point charge at its centre · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.3.2 Recall and use Coulomb's law F = Q₁Q₂ / (4πε₀r²) for the force between two point charges in free space · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.4.1 Recall and use E = Q / (4πε₀r²) for the electric field strength due to a point charge in free space · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
18.5.1 Define electric potential at a point as the work done per unit positive charge in bringing a small test charge from infinity to the point · Electric potential
18.5.2 Recall and use the fact that the electric field at a point is equal to the negative of potential gradient at that point · Electric potential
18.5.3 Use V = Q / (4πε₀r) for the electric potential in the field due to a point charge · Electric potential
18.5.4 Understand how the concept of electric potential leads to the electric potential energy of two point charges and use Ep = Qq / (4πε₀r) · Electric potential

19 · CAPACITANCE

19.1.1 Define capacitance, as applied to both isolated spherical conductors and to parallel plate capacitors · Capacitors and energy stored
19.1.2 Recall and use C = Q / V · Capacitors and energy stored
19.1.3 Derive, using C = Q / V, formulas for the combined capacitance of capacitors in series and in parallel · Capacitors and energy stored
19.1.4 Use the capacitance formulas for capacitors in series and in parallel · Capacitors and energy stored
19.2.1 Determine the electric potential energy stored in a capacitor from the area under the potential–charge graph · Capacitors and energy stored
19.2.2 Recall and use W = ½QV = ½CV² · Capacitors and energy stored
19.3.1 Analyse graphs of the variation with time of potential difference, charge and current for a capacitor discharging through a resistor · Charging and discharging · The time constant and exponential decay
19.3.2 Recall and use τ = RC for the time constant for a capacitor discharging through a resistor · The time constant and exponential decay
19.3.3 Use equations of the form x = x₀ e^–(t / RC) where x could represent current, charge or potential difference for a capacitor discharging through a resistor · The time constant and exponential decay

20 · MAGNETIC FIELDS

20.1.1 Understand that a magnetic field is an example of a field of force produced either by moving charges or by permanent magnets · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.1.2 Represent a magnetic field by field lines · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.2.1 Understand that a force might act on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.2.2 Recall and use the equation F = BIL sin θ, with directions as interpreted by Fleming's left-hand rule · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.2.3 Define magnetic flux density as the force acting per unit current per unit length on a wire placed at right-angles to the magnetic field · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.3.1 Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field · Force on a moving charge
20.3.2 Recall and use F = BQv sin θ · Force on a moving charge
20.3.3 Understand the origin of the Hall voltage and derive and use the expression VH = BI/(ntq), where t = thickness · Force on a moving charge
20.3.4 Understand the use of a Hall probe to measure magnetic flux density · Force on a moving charge · Discrete semiconductor devices
20.3.5 Describe the motion of a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of motion of the particle · Force on a moving charge
20.3.6 Explain how electric and magnetic fields can be used in velocity selection · Force on a moving charge · Cathode rays and the electron
20.4.1 Sketch magnetic field patterns due to the currents in a long straight wire, a flat circular coil and a long solenoid · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.4.2 Understand that the magnetic field due to the current in a solenoid is increased by a ferrous core · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.4.3 Explain the origin of the forces between current-carrying conductors and determine the direction of the forces · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
20.5.1 Define magnetic flux as the product of the magnetic flux density and the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic flux density · Magnetic flux and flux linkage
20.5.2 Recall and use Φ = BA · Magnetic flux and flux linkage
20.5.3 Understand and use the concept of magnetic flux linkage · Magnetic flux and flux linkage
20.5.4 Understand and explain experiments that demonstrate · Electromagnetic induction: Faraday and Lenz
20.5.5 Recall and use Faraday's and Lenz's laws of electromagnetic induction · Electromagnetic induction: Faraday and Lenz

21 · ALTERNATING CURRENTS

21.1.1 Understand and use the terms period, frequency and peak value as applied to an alternating current or voltage · Alternating currents
21.1.2 Use equations of the form x = x₀ sin ωt representing a sinusoidally alternating current or voltage · Alternating currents
21.1.3 Recall and use the fact that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for a sinusoidal alternating current · Alternating currents
21.1.4 Distinguish between root-mean-square (r.m.s.) and peak values and recall and use Ir.m.s. = I₀/√2 and Vr.m.s. = V₀/√2 for a sinusoidal alternating current · Alternating currents
21.2.1 Distinguish graphically between half-wave and full-wave rectification · Rectification and smoothing
21.2.2 Explain the use of a single diode for the half-wave rectification of an alternating current · Rectification and smoothing
21.2.3 Explain the use of four diodes (bridge rectifier) for the full-wave rectification of an alternating current · Rectification and smoothing
21.2.4 Analyse the effect of a single capacitor in smoothing, including the effect of the values of capacitance and the load resistance · Rectification and smoothing

22 · QUANTUM PHYSICS

22.1.1 Understand that electromagnetic radiation has a particulate nature · The photoelectric effect · Quanta and wave-particle duality
22.1.2 Understand that a photon is a quantum of electromagnetic energy · The photoelectric effect · Quanta and wave-particle duality
22.1.3 Recall and use E = hf · The photoelectric effect
22.1.4 Use the electronvolt (eV) as a unit of energy · The photoelectric effect · Collisions of electrons with atoms
22.1.5 Understand that a photon has momentum and that the momentum is given by p = E/c · The photoelectric effect
22.2.1 Understand that photoelectrons may be emitted from a metal surface when it is illuminated by electromagnetic radiation · The photoelectric effect
22.2.2 Understand and use the terms threshold frequency and threshold wavelength · The photoelectric effect
22.2.3 Explain photoelectric emission in terms of photon energy and work function energy · The photoelectric effect
22.2.4 Recall and use hf = Φ + ½mv²max · The photoelectric effect
22.2.5 Explain why the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of intensity, whereas the photoelectric current is proportional to intensity · The photoelectric effect
22.3.1 Understand that the photoelectric effect provides evidence for a particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation while phenomena such as interference and diffraction provide evidence for a wave nature · Wave-particle duality · Quanta and wave-particle duality
22.3.2 Describe and interpret qualitatively the evidence provided by electron diffraction for the wave nature of particles · Wave-particle duality · Quanta and wave-particle duality
22.3.3 Understand the de Broglie wavelength as the wavelength associated with a moving particle · Wave-particle duality · Quanta and wave-particle duality
22.3.4 Recall and use λ = h/p · Wave-particle duality · Quanta and wave-particle duality
22.4.1 Understand that there are discrete electron energy levels in isolated atoms (e.g. atomic hydrogen) · Collisions of electrons with atoms · Energy levels and photon emission
22.4.2 Understand the appearance and formation of emission and absorption line spectra · Energy levels and photon emission
22.4.3 Recall and use hf = E₁ − E₂ · Collisions of electrons with atoms · Energy levels and photon emission

23 · NUCLEAR PHYSICS

23.1.1 Understand the equivalence between energy and mass as represented by E = mc² and recall and use this equation · Mass-energy and binding energy
23.1.2 Represent simple nuclear reactions by nuclear equations of the form ¹⁴₇N + ⁴₂He → ¹⁷₈O + ¹₁H · Fission and fusion
23.1.3 Define and use the terms mass defect and binding energy · Mass-energy and binding energy
23.1.4 Sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number · Mass-energy and binding energy
23.1.5 Explain what is meant by nuclear fusion and nuclear fission · Fission and fusion
23.1.6 Explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear reactions, including nuclear fusion and nuclear fission · Mass-energy and binding energy · Fission and fusion
23.1.7 Calculate the energy released in nuclear reactions using E = c²Δm · Mass-energy and binding energy · Fission and fusion
23.2.1 Understand that fluctuations in count rate provide evidence for the random nature of radioactive decay · Radioactive decay and half-life
23.2.2 Understand that radioactive decay is both spontaneous and random · Radioactive decay and half-life
23.2.3 Define activity and decay constant, and recall and use A = λN · Radioactive decay and half-life
23.2.4 Define half-life · Radioactive decay and half-life
23.2.5 Use λ = 0.693/t½ · Radioactive decay and half-life
23.2.6 Understand the exponential nature of radioactive decay, and sketch and use the relationship x = x₀e^(−λt), where x could represent activity, number of undecayed nuclei or received count rate · Radioactive decay and half-life

24 · MEDICAL PHYSICS

24.1.1 Understand that a piezo-electric crystal changes shape when a p.d. is applied across it and that the crystal generates an e.m.f. when its shape changes · Ultrasound imaging
24.1.2 Understand how ultrasound waves are generated and detected by a piezoelectric transducer · Ultrasound imaging
24.1.3 Understand how the reflection of pulses of ultrasound at boundaries between tissues can be used to obtain diagnostic information about internal structures · Ultrasound imaging
24.1.4 Define the specific acoustic impedance of a medium as Z = ρc, where c is the speed of sound in the medium · Ultrasound imaging
24.1.5 Use IR/I₀ = (Z₁ − Z₂)²/(Z₁ + Z₂)² for the intensity reflection coefficient of a boundary between two media · Ultrasound imaging
24.1.6 Recall and use I = I₀e^(−μx) for the attenuation of ultrasound in matter · Ultrasound imaging
24.2.1 Explain that X-rays are produced by electron bombardment of a metal target and calculate the minimum wavelength of X-rays produced from the accelerating p.d · X-rays and CT scanning
24.2.2 Understand the use of X-rays in imaging internal body structures, including an understanding of the term contrast in X-ray imaging · X-rays and CT scanning
24.2.3 Recall and use I = I₀e^(−μx) for the attenuation of X-rays in matter · X-rays and CT scanning
24.2.4 Understand that computed tomography (CT) scanning produces a 3D image of an internal structure by first combining multiple X-ray images taken in the same section from different angles to obtain a 2D image of the section, then repeating this process along an axis and combining 2D images of multiple sections · X-rays and CT scanning
24.3.1 Understand that a tracer is a substance containing radioactive nuclei that can be introduced into the body and is then absorbed by the tissue being studied · Radionuclide imaging and PET
24.3.2 Recall that a tracer that decays by β⁺ decay is used in positron emission tomography (PET scanning) · Radionuclide imaging and PET
24.3.3 Understand that annihilation occurs when a particle interacts with its antiparticle and that mass–energy and momentum are conserved in the process · Radionuclide imaging and PET
24.3.4 Explain that, in PET scanning, positrons emitted by the decay of the tracer annihilate when they interact with electrons in the tissue, producing a pair of gamma-ray photons travelling in opposite directions · Radionuclide imaging and PET
24.3.5 Calculate the energy of the gamma-ray photons emitted during the annihilation of an electron-positron pair · Radionuclide imaging and PET
24.3.6 Understand that the gamma-ray photons from an annihilation event travel outside the body and can be detected, and an image of the tracer concentration in the tissue can be created by processing the arrival times of the gamma-ray photons · Radionuclide imaging and PET

25 · ASTRONOMY AND COSMOLOGY

25.1.1 Understand the term luminosity as the total power of radiation emitted by a star · Star brightness and magnitude
25.1.2 Recall and use the inverse square law for radiant flux intensity F in terms of the luminosity L of the source F = L/(4πd²) · Star brightness and magnitude
25.1.3 Understand that an object of known luminosity is called a standard candle · Star brightness and magnitude
25.1.4 Understand the use of standard candles to determine distances to galaxies · Star brightness and magnitude
25.2.1 Recall and use Wien's displacement law λmax ∝ 1/T to estimate the peak surface temperature of a star · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
25.2.2 Use the Stefan–Boltzmann law L = 4πσr²T⁴ · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
25.2.3 Use Wien's displacement law and the Stefan–Boltzmann law to estimate the radius of a star · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
25.3.1 Understand that the lines in the emission and absorption spectra from distant objects show an increase in wavelength from their known values · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
25.3.2 Use Δλ/λ ≈ Δf/f ≈ v/c for the redshift of electromagnetic radiation from a source moving relative to an observer · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
25.3.3 Explain why redshift leads to the idea that the universe is expanding · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
25.3.4 Recall and use Hubble's law v ≈ H₀d and explain how this leads to the Big Bang theory (candidates will only be required to use SI units) · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law

Each row is a short label for one outcome of the board's own list, written to be found and followed rather than quoted; some sit close to the board's wording and some are our paraphrase. The codes are the board's so you can look the outcome up. A link means the lesson teaches that outcome, not the group it sits in, and it does not promise the same depth the board asks for. The specification itself is the authority: check it when a mark depends on it.