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OCR A-level Physics A (H556) revision

Everything here is free and covers OCR A H556: illustrated notes for every topic, original exam-style questions with mark schemes, the practicals, flashcards and printable workbooks. The explanations are written once and shared by every board; this page is where you find out exactly which of them OCR A asks you for.

Start with the topic notes · exam-style questions with mark schemes · the practicals · the equations · the definitions · flashcards · a revision checklist · where the real past papers are.

Specification map

Every point of the OCR A outline, in the board's own order, linked to the lesson that covers it. 349 of 349 points map onto the library; anything that does not is marked rather than hidden.

What that number is: a count of statements this library teaches somewhere. It is not a depth audit, so a mapped row means the topic is here and not that it is covered to the length the paper may demand. A further 71 rows are the practical endorsement, which is work done and assessed in a laboratory and reported separately from the grade; 27 of them have a guide here, and the rest are marked as belonging to the lab rather than as missing. Where you find a row thinner than your exam needs, tell us and it goes on the list.

1 · DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS

• 1.1.1(a) Experimental design, including to solve problems set in a practical context · The required practical guides
• 1.1.1(b) Identification of variables that must be controlled, where appropriate · The required practical guides
• 1.1.1(c) Evaluation that an experimental method is appropriate to meet the expected outcomes · The required practical guides
• 1.1.2(a) How to use a wide range of practical apparatus and techniques correctly · The required practical guides
• 1.1.2(b) Appropriate units for measurements · The required practical guides
• 1.1.2(c) Presenting observations and data in an appropriate format · The required practical guides
• 1.1.3(a) Processing, analysing and interpreting qualitative and quantitative experimental results · The required practical guides
• 1.1.3(b) Use of appropriate mathematical skills for analysis of quantitative data · The required practical guides
• 1.1.3(c) Appropriate use of significant figures · Uncertainty and error
• 1.1.3(d)(i) Plotting and interpreting suitable graphs from experimental results, including selection and labelling of axes with appropriate scales, quantities and units · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.1.3(d)(ii) Plotting and interpreting suitable graphs from experimental results, including measurement of gradients and intercepts · The required practical guides
• 1.1.4(a) How to evaluate results and draw conclusions · The required practical guides
• 1.1.4(b) The identification of anomalies in experimental measurements · The required practical guides
• 1.1.4(c) The limitations in experimental procedures · The required practical guides
• 1.1.4(d) Precision and accuracy of measurements and data, including margins of error, percentage errors and uncertainties in apparatus · Uncertainty and error
• 1.1.4(e) The refining of experimental design by suggestion of improvements to the procedures and apparatus · Uncertainty and error
• 1.2.1(a) Apply investigative approaches and methods to practical work · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(b) Safely and correctly use a range of practical equipment and materials · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(c) Follow written instructions · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(d) Make and record observations/measurements · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(e) Keep appropriate records of experimental activities · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(f) Present information and data in a scientific way · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(g) Use appropriate software and tools to process data, carry out research and report findings · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(h) Use online and offline research skills including websites, textbooks and other printed scientific sources of information · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(i) Correctly cite sources of information · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.1(j) Use a wide range of experimental and practical instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and understanding included in the specification · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(a) Use of appropriate analogue apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include length/distance, temperature, pressure, force, angles and volume) and to interpolate between scale markings · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(b) Use of appropriate digital instruments, including electrical multimeters, to obtain a range of measurements (to include time, current, voltage, resistance and mass) · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(c) Use of methods to increase accuracy of measurements, such as timing over multiple oscillations, or use of fiducial marker, set square or plumb line · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(d) Use of a stopwatch or light gates for timing · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(e) Use of calipers and micrometers for small distances, using digital or vernier scales · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(f) Correctly constructing circuits from circuit diagrams using DC power supplies, cells, and a range of circuit components, including those where polarity is important · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(g) Designing, constructing and checking circuits using DC power supplies, cells, and a range of circuit components · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(h) Use of a signal generator and oscilloscope, including volts/division and time-base · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(i) Generating and measuring waves, using microphone and loudspeaker, or ripple tank, or vibration transducer, or microwave/radio wave source · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(j) Use of a laser or light source to investigate characteristics of light, including interference and diffraction · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(k) Use of ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger with a variety of sensors to collect data, or use of software to process data · assessed in the lab, not here
• 1.2.2(l) Use of ionising radiation, including detectors · assessed in the lab, not here

2 · FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS

• 2.1.1(a) Physical quantities have a numerical value and a unit · SI units and prefixes
• 2.1.1(b) Making estimates of physical quantities listed in this specification · Estimation and orders of magnitude
• 2.1.2(a) Système Internationale (S.I.) base quantities and their units - mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol) · SI units and prefixes
• 2.1.2(b) Derived units of S.I. base units · SI units and prefixes
• 2.1.2(c) Units listed in this specification · SI units and prefixes
• 2.1.2(d) Checking the homogeneity of physical equations using S.I. base units · SI units and prefixes
• 2.1.2(e) Prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of units - pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T) · SI units and prefixes
• 2.1.2(f) The conventions used for labelling graph axes and table columns · SI units and prefixes
• 2.2.1(a) Systematic errors (including zero errors) and random errors in measurements · Uncertainty and error
• 2.2.1(b) Precision and accuracy · Uncertainty and error
• 2.2.1(c) Absolute and percentage uncertainties when data are combined by addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and raising to powers · Uncertainty and error
• 2.2.1(d) Graphical treatment of errors and uncertainties; line of best fit; worst line; absolute and percentage uncertainties; percentage difference · Uncertainty and error
• 2.3.1(a) Scalar and vector quantities · Scalars and vectors
• 2.3.1(b) Vector addition and subtraction · Scalars and vectors
• 2.3.1(c) Vector triangle to determine the resultant of any two coplanar vectors · Scalars and vectors
• 2.3.1(d) Resolving a vector into two perpendicular components; Fx = F cos θ; Fy = F sin θ · Scalars and vectors

3 · FORCES AND MOTION

• 3.1.1(a) Displacement, instantaneous speed, average speed, velocity and acceleration · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.1(b) Graphical representations of displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.1(c) Displacement-time graphs; velocity is gradient · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.1(d) Velocity-time graphs; acceleration is gradient; displacement is area under graph · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.2(a)(i) The equations of motion for constant acceleration in a straight line, including motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field without air resistance: v = u + at; s = (1/2)(u + v)t; s = ut + (1/2)at²; v² = u² + 2as · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.2(a)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate the motion and collisions of objects · assessed in the lab, not here
• 3.1.2(b)(i) Acceleration g of free fall · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.2(b)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the acceleration of free fall, to include using a trapdoor and electromagnet arrangement and a light-gates-and-timer arrangement · assessed in the lab, not here
• 3.1.2(c) Reaction time and thinking distance; braking distance and stopping distance for a vehicle · Motion graphs and the SUVAT equations
• 3.1.3(a) Independence of the vertical and horizontal motion of a projectile · Projectile motion
• 3.1.3(b) Two-dimensional motion of a projectile with constant velocity in one direction and constant acceleration in a perpendicular direction · Projectile motion
• 3.2.1(a) Net force = mass × acceleration; F = ma · Newton's laws and the resultant force
• 3.2.1(b) The newton as the unit of force · SI units and prefixes
• 3.2.1(c) Weight of an object; W = mg · Mass and weight
• 3.2.1(d) The terms tension, normal contact force, upthrust and friction · Newton's laws and the resultant force
• 3.2.1(e) Free-body diagrams · Newton's laws and the resultant force
• 3.2.1(f) One- and two-dimensional motion under constant force · Newton's laws and the resultant force
• 3.2.2(a) Drag as the frictional force experienced by an object travelling through a fluid · Drag and terminal speed
• 3.2.2(b) Factors affecting drag for an object travelling through air · Drag and terminal speed
• 3.2.2(c) Motion of objects falling in a uniform gravitational field in the presence of drag · Drag and terminal speed
• 3.2.2(d)(i) Terminal velocity · Drag and terminal speed
• 3.2.2(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine terminal velocity in fluids · assessed in the lab, not here
• 3.2.3(a) Moment of force; moment = Fx · Moments and equilibrium
• 3.2.3(b) Couple; torque of a couple; torque = Fd · Moments and equilibrium
• 3.2.3(c) The principle of moments · Moments and equilibrium
• 3.2.3(d) Centre of mass; centre of gravity; experimental determination of centre of gravity · Moments and equilibrium
• 3.2.3(e) Equilibrium of an object under the action of forces and torques · Moments and equilibrium
• 3.2.3(f) Condition for equilibrium of three coplanar forces; triangle of forces · Scalars and vectors
• 3.2.4(a) Density; ρ = m/V · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.2.4(b) Pressure; p = F/A for solids, liquids and gases · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity
• 3.2.4(c) P = hρg; upthrust on an object in a fluid; Archimedes' principle · Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity
• 3.3.1(a) Work done by a force; the unit joule · Work, energy and power
• 3.3.1(b) W = Fx cos θ for work done by a force · Work, energy and power
• 3.3.1(c) The principle of conservation of energy · Conservation of energy
• 3.3.1(d) Energy in different forms; transfer and conservation · Conservation of energy
• 3.3.1(e) Transfer of energy is equal to work done · Work, energy and power
• 3.3.2(a) Kinetic energy of an object; Ek = (1/2)mv² · Conservation of energy
• 3.3.2(b) Gravitational potential energy of an object in a uniform gravitational field; Ep = mgh · Conservation of energy
• 3.3.2(c) The exchange between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy · Conservation of energy
• 3.3.3(a) Power; the unit watt; P = W/t · Work, energy and power
• 3.3.3(b) P = Fv · Work, energy and power
• 3.3.3(c) Efficiency of a mechanical system; efficiency = useful output energy/total input energy × 100% · Work, energy and power
• 3.4.1(a) Tensile and compressive deformation; extension and compression · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.4.1(b) Hooke’s law · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.4.1(c) Force constant k of a spring or wire; F = kx · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.4.1(d)(i) Force-extension (or compression) graphs for springs and wires · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.4.1(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate force-extension characteristics for arrangements which may include springs, rubber bands and polythene strips · Measuring the Young modulus
• 3.4.2(a) Force-extension (or compression) graph; work done is area under graph · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.4.2(b) Elastic potential energy; E = (1/2)Fx; E = (1/2)kx² · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.4.2(c) Stress, strain and ultimate tensile strength · Stress, strain and the Young modulus
• 3.4.2(d)(i) Young modulus = tensile stress/tensile strain, E = σ/ε · Stress, strain and the Young modulus
• 3.4.2(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the Young modulus for a metal · Stress, strain and the Young modulus
• 3.4.2(e) Stress-strain graphs for typical ductile, brittle and polymeric materials · Stress, strain and the Young modulus
• 3.4.2(f) Elastic and plastic deformations of materials · Density and Hooke's law
• 3.5.1(a) Newton’s three laws of motion · Newton's laws and the resultant force
• 3.5.1(b) Linear momentum; p = mv; vector nature of momentum · Momentum and impulse
• 3.5.1(c) Net force = rate of change of momentum; F = Δp/Δt · Momentum and impulse
• 3.5.1(d) Impulse of a force; impulse = FΔt · Momentum and impulse
• 3.5.1(e) Impulse is equal to the area under a force-time graph · Momentum and impulse
• 3.5.2(a) The principle of conservation of momentum · Momentum and impulse
• 3.5.2(b) Collisions and interaction of bodies in one dimension and in two dimensions · Momentum and impulse
• 3.5.2(c) Perfectly elastic collision and inelastic collision · Momentum and impulse

4 · ELECTRONS, WAVES AND PHOTONS

• 4.1.1(a) Electric current as rate of flow of charge; I = ΔQ/Δt · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.1(b) The coulomb as the unit of charge · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.1(c) The elementary charge e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.1(d) Net charge on a particle or an object is quantised and a multiple of e · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.1(e) Current as the movement of electrons in metals and movement of ions in electrolytes · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.1(f) Conventional current and electron flow · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.1(g) Kirchhoff’s first law; conservation of charge · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.1.2(a) Mean drift velocity of charge carriers · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.2(b) I = Anev, where n is the number density of charge carriers · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.1.2(c) Distinction between conductors, semiconductors and insulators in terms of n · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.2.1(a) Circuit symbols · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.2.1(b) Circuit diagrams using these symbols · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.2.2(a) Potential difference (p.d.); the unit volt · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.2.2(b) Electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source such as a cell or a power supply · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.2.2(c) Distinction between e.m.f. and p.d. in terms of energy transfer · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.2.2(d) Energy transfer; W = VQ; W = EQ · Current, charge and the direction problem · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.2.2(e) Energy transfer eV = (1/2)mv² for electrons and other charged particles · Current, charge and the direction problem
• 4.2.3(a) Resistance; R = V/I; the unit ohm · Current, charge and the direction problem · Current-voltage characteristics
• 4.2.3(b) Ohm’s law · Current-voltage characteristics
• 4.2.3(c)(i) I-V characteristics of resistor, filament lamp, thermistor, diode and light-emitting diode (LED) · Current-voltage characteristics
• 4.2.3(c)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate the electrical characteristics for a range of ohmic and non-ohmic components · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.2.3(d) Light-dependent resistor (LDR); variation of resistance with light intensity · Potential dividers
• 4.2.4(a)(i) Resistivity of a material; the equation R = ρL/A · Resistivity and superconductivity
• 4.2.4(a)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the resistivity of a metal · Resistivity and superconductivity
• 4.2.4(b) The variation of resistivity of metals and semiconductors with temperature · Resistivity and superconductivity
• 4.2.4(c) Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor; variation of resistance with temperature · Resistivity and superconductivity
• 4.2.5(a) The equations P = VI, P = I²R and P = V²/R · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.2.5(b) Energy transfer; W = VIt · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.2.5(c) The kilowatt-hour (kW h) as a unit of energy; calculating the cost of energy · SI units and prefixes
• 4.3.1(a) Kirchhoff’s second law; the conservation of energy · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.3.1(b) Kirchhoff’s first and second laws applied to electrical circuits · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.3.1(c) Total resistance of two or more resistors in series; R = R1 + R2 + … · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.3.1(d) Total resistance of two or more resistors in parallel; 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + … · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.3.1(e) Analysis of circuits with components, including both series and parallel · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.3.1(f) Analysis of circuits with more than one source of e.m.f · Circuits and Kirchhoff's laws
• 4.3.2(a) Source of e.m.f.; internal resistance · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.3.2(b) Terminal p.d.; 'lost volts' · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.3.2(c)(i) The equations E = I(R + r) and E = V + Ir · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.3.2(c)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the internal resistance of a chemical cell or other source of e.m.f · EMF and internal resistance
• 4.3.3(a) Potential divider circuit with components · Potential dividers
• 4.3.3(b) Potential divider circuits with variable components e.g. LDR and thermistor · Potential dividers
• 4.3.3(c)(i) Potential-divider equations, for example Vout = (R2/(R1 + R2))Vin and V1/V2 = R1/R2 · Potential dividers
• 4.3.3(c)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate potential-divider circuits which may include a sensor such as a thermistor or an LDR · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.4.1(a) Progressive waves; longitudinal and transverse waves · Progressive waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
• 4.4.1(b)(i) Displacement, amplitude, wavelength, period, phase difference, frequency and speed of a wave · Progressive waves
• 4.4.1(b)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to use an oscilloscope to determine frequency · Progressive waves · Alternating currents
• 4.4.1(c) The equation f = 1/T · Progressive waves
• 4.4.1(d) The wave equation v = fλ · Progressive waves
• 4.4.1(e) Graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
• 4.4.1(f)(i) Reflection, refraction, polarisation and diffraction of all waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation · Refraction and total internal reflection · Diffraction and the single slit
• 4.4.1(f)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to demonstrate wave effects using a ripple tank · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.4.1(f)(iii) Techniques and procedures used to observe polarising effects using microwaves and light · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.4.1(g) Intensity of a progressive wave; I = P/A; intensity ∝ (amplitude)² · Progressive waves
• 4.4.2(a) Electromagnetic spectrum; properties of electromagnetic waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
• 4.4.2(b) Orders of magnitude of wavelengths of the principal radiations from radio waves to gamma rays · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
• 4.4.2(c) Plane polarised waves; polarisation of electromagnetic waves · Longitudinal, transverse and polarisation
• 4.4.2(d)(i) Refraction of light; refractive index; n = c/v; n sin θ = constant at a boundary where θ is the angle to the normal · Refraction and total internal reflection
• 4.4.2(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate refraction and total internal reflection of light using ray boxes, including transparent rectangular and semi-circular blocks · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.4.2(e) Critical angle; sin C = 1/n; total internal reflection for light · Refraction and total internal reflection
• 4.4.3(a)(i) The principle of superposition of waves · Stationary waves · Interference and Young's double slit
• 4.4.3(a)(ii) Techniques and procedures used for superposition experiments using sound, light and microwaves · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.4.3(b) Graphical methods to illustrate the principle of superposition · Stationary waves
• 4.4.3(c) Interference, coherence, path difference and phase difference · Interference and Young's double slit
• 4.4.3(d) Constructive interference and destructive interference in terms of path difference and phase difference · Interference and Young's double slit
• 4.4.3(e) Two-source interference with sound and microwaves · Interference and Young's double slit
• 4.4.3(f) Young double-slit experiment using visible light · Interference and Young's double slit · The nature of light
• 4.4.3(g)(i) Λ = ax/D for all waves where a much less than D · Interference and Young's double slit
• 4.4.3(g)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the wavelength of light using (1) a double-slit, and (2) a diffraction grating · Interference: double slit and diffraction grating
• 4.4.4(a) Stationary (standing) waves using microwaves, stretched strings and air columns · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(b) Graphical representations of a stationary wave · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(c) Similarities and the differences between stationary and progressive waves · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(d) Nodes and antinodes · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(e)(i) Stationary-wave patterns for a stretched string and air columns in closed and open tubes · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(e)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the speed of sound in air by formation of stationary waves in a resonance tube · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(f) The idea that the separation between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) is equal to λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the progressive wave · Stationary waves
• 4.4.4(g) Fundamental mode of vibration (1st harmonic); harmonics · Stationary waves
• 4.5.1(a) The particulate nature (photon model) of electromagnetic radiation · The photoelectric effect · Quanta and wave-particle duality
• 4.5.1(b) Photon as a quantum of energy of electromagnetic radiation · The photoelectric effect · Quanta and wave-particle duality
• 4.5.1(c) Energy of a photon; E = hf and E = hc/λ · The photoelectric effect
• 4.5.1(d) The electronvolt (eV) as a unit of energy · The photoelectric effect · Collisions of electrons with atoms
• 4.5.1(e)(i) Using LEDs and the equation eV = hc/λ to estimate the value of Planck constant h · The photoelectric effect
• 4.5.1(e)(ii) Determine the Planck constant using different coloured LEDs · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.5.2(a)(i) Photoelectric effect, including a simple experiment to demonstrate this effect · The photoelectric effect
• 4.5.2(a)(ii) Demonstration of the photoelectric effect using, e.g. gold-leaf electroscope and zinc plate · assessed in the lab, not here
• 4.5.2(b) A one-to-one interaction between a photon and a surface electron · The photoelectric effect · Quanta and wave-particle duality
• 4.5.2(c) Einstein's photoelectric equation hf = φ + KEmax · The photoelectric effect
• 4.5.2(d) Work function; threshold frequency · The photoelectric effect
• 4.5.2(e) The idea that the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation · The photoelectric effect · Quanta and wave-particle duality
• 4.5.2(f) The idea that rate of emission of photoelectrons above the threshold frequency is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation · The photoelectric effect
• 4.5.3(a) Electron diffraction, including experimental evidence of this effect · Wave-particle duality · Quanta and wave-particle duality
• 4.5.3(b) Diffraction of electrons travelling through a thin slice of polycrystalline graphite by the atoms of graphite and the spacing between the atoms · Wave-particle duality
• 4.5.3(c) The de Broglie equation λ = h/p · Wave-particle duality · Quanta and wave-particle duality

5 · NEWTONIAN WORLD AND ASTROPHYSICS

• 5.1.1(a) Thermal equilibrium · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.1(b) Absolute scale of temperature (i.e. the thermodynamic scale) that does not depend on property of any particular substance · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.1(c) Temperature measurements both in degrees Celsius (°C) and in kelvin (K) · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.1(d) T (K) = θ(^°C) + 273 · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.2(a) Solids, liquids and gases in terms of the spacing, ordering and motion of atoms or molecules · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.2(b) Simple kinetic model for solids, liquids and gases · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.2(c) Brownian motion in terms of the kinetic model of matter and a simple demonstration using smoke particles suspended in air · Molecular kinetic theory
• 5.1.2(d) Internal energy as the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules of a system · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.2(e) Absolute zero (0 K) as the lowest limit for temperature; the temperature at which a substance has minimum internal energy · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.2(f) Increase in the internal energy of a body as its temperature rises · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity · The first law of thermodynamics
• 5.1.2(g) Changes in the internal energy of a substance during change of phase; constant temperature during change of phase · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.3(a) Specific heat capacity of a substance; the equation E = mcΔθ · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.3(b)(i) An electrical experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal or a liquid · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.3(b)(ii) Techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal block and a liquid · assessed in the lab, not here
• 5.1.3(c) Specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporisation; E = ml · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.3(d)(i) An electrical experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion and vaporisation · Thermal energy transfer and specific heat capacity
• 5.1.3(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific latent heat of a solid and a liquid · assessed in the lab, not here
• 5.1.4(a) Amount of substance in moles; Avogadro constant NA equals 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹ · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.4(b) Model of kinetic theory of gases · Molecular kinetic theory
• 5.1.4(c) Pressure in terms of this model · Molecular kinetic theory
• 5.1.4(d)(i) The equation of state of an ideal gas pV = nRT, where n is the number of moles · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.4(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate pV = constant (Boyle's law) and p/T = constant · assessed in the lab, not here
• 5.1.4(d)(iii) An estimation of absolute zero using variation of gas temperature with pressure · assessed in the lab, not here
• 5.1.4(e) The equation pV = (1/3)Nm< c²>, where N is the number of particles (atoms or molecules) and < c²> is the mean square speed · Molecular kinetic theory
• 5.1.4(f) Root mean square (r.m.s.) speed; mean square speed < c²> · Molecular kinetic theory
• 5.1.4(g) The Boltzmann constant; k = R/NA · Ideal gases and the gas laws
• 5.1.4(h) PV = NkT; (1/2)m< c²> = (3/2)kT · Molecular kinetic theory
• 5.1.4(i) Internal energy of an ideal gas · Molecular kinetic theory · The first law of thermodynamics
• 5.2.1(a) The radian as a measure of angle · Circular motion
• 5.2.1(b) Period and frequency of an object in circular motion · Circular motion
• 5.2.1(c) Angular velocity ω; ω = 2π/T or ω = 2πf · Circular motion
• 5.2.2(a) A constant net force perpendicular to the velocity of an object causes it to travel in a circular path · Circular motion
• 5.2.2(b) Constant speed in a circle; v = ωr · Circular motion
• 5.2.2(c) Centripetal acceleration; a = v²/r; a = ω²r · Circular motion
• 5.2.2(d)(i) Centripetal force; F = mv²/r; F = mω²r · Circular motion
• 5.2.2(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate circular motion using a whirling bung · assessed in the lab, not here
• 5.3.1(a) Displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency and phase difference · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.1(b) Angular frequency ω; ω = 2π/T or ω = 2πf · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.1(c)(i) Simple harmonic motion; defining equation a = -ω²x · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.1(c)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the period/frequency of simple harmonic oscillations · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
• 5.3.1(d) Solutions to the equation a = -ω²x, for example x = A cos ωt or x = A sin ωt · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.1(e) Velocity v = ±ω√(A² - x²), hence vmax = ωA · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.1(f) The period of a simple harmonic oscillator is independent of its amplitude (isochronous oscillator) · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.1(g) Graphical methods to relate the changes in displacement, velocity and acceleration during simple harmonic motion · Simple harmonic motion
• 5.3.2(a) Interchange between kinetic and potential energy during simple harmonic motion · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
• 5.3.2(b) Energy-displacement graphs for a simple harmonic oscillator · SHM systems: pendulums and springs
• 5.3.3(a) Free and forced oscillations · Forced vibrations and resonance
• 5.3.3(b)(i) The effects of damping on an oscillatory system · SHM systems: pendulums and springs · Forced vibrations and resonance
• 5.3.3(b)(ii) Observe forced and damped oscillations for a range of systems · assessed in the lab, not here
• 5.3.3(c) Resonance; natural frequency · Forced vibrations and resonance
• 5.3.3(d) Amplitude-driving frequency graphs for forced oscillators · Forced vibrations and resonance
• 5.3.3(e) Practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance · Forced vibrations and resonance
• 5.4.1(a) Gravitational fields are due to objects having mass · The field concept
• 5.4.1(b) Modelling the mass of a spherical object as a point mass at its centre · Newton's law of gravitation
• 5.4.1(c) Gravitational field lines to map gravitational fields · The field concept
• 5.4.1(d) Gravitational field strength; g = F/m · Newton's law of gravitation
• 5.4.1(e) The concept of gravitational fields as being one of a number of forms of field giving rise to a force · The field concept
• 5.4.2(a) Newton's law of gravitation; F = -GMm/r² for the force between two point masses · Newton's law of gravitation
• 5.4.2(b) Gravitational field strength g = -GM/r² for a point mass · Newton's law of gravitation
• 5.4.2(c) Gravitational field strength is uniform close to the surface of the Earth and numerically equal to the acceleration of free fall · Newton's law of gravitation
• 5.4.3(a) Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion · Orbits and satellites
• 5.4.3(b) The centripetal force on a planet is provided by the gravitational force between it and the Sun · Orbits and satellites
• 5.4.3(c) The equation T² = (4π²/GM)r³ · Orbits and satellites
• 5.4.3(d) The relationship for Kepler's third law T² ∝ r³ applied to systems other than our solar system · Orbits and satellites
• 5.4.3(e) Geostationary orbit; uses of geostationary satellites · Orbits and satellites
• 5.4.4(a) Gravitational potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point; gravitational potential is zero at infinity · Gravitational potential
• 5.4.4(b) Gravitational potential Vg = -GM/r at a distance r from a point mass M; changes in gravitational potential · Gravitational potential
• 5.4.4(c) Force-distance graph for a point or spherical mass; work done is area under graph · Gravitational potential
• 5.4.4(d) Gravitational potential energy E = mVg = -GMm/r at a distance r from a point mass M · Gravitational potential
• 5.4.4(e) Escape velocity · Orbits and satellites
• 5.5.1(a) The terms planets, planetary satellites, comets, solar systems, galaxies and the universe · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.1(b) Formation of a star from interstellar dust and gas in terms of gravitational collapse, fusion of hydrogen into helium, radiation and gas pressure · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.1(c) Evolution of a low-mass star like our Sun into a red giant and white dwarf; planetary nebula · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.1(d) Characteristics of a white dwarf; electron degeneracy pressure; Chandrasekhar limit · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.1(e) Evolution of a massive star into a red super giant and then either a neutron star or black hole; supernova · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.1(f) Characteristics of a neutron star and a black hole · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.1(g) Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram as luminosity- temperature plot; main sequence; red giants; super red giants; white dwarfs · The HR diagram and stellar evolution
• 5.5.2(a) Energy levels of electrons in isolated gas atoms · Collisions of electrons with atoms · Energy levels and photon emission
• 5.5.2(b) The idea that energy levels have negative values · Energy levels and photon emission
• 5.5.2(c) Emission spectral lines from hot gases in terms of emission of photons and transition of electrons between discrete energy levels · Energy levels and photon emission
• 5.5.2(d) The equations hf = ΔE and hc/λ = ΔE · Collisions of electrons with atoms · Energy levels and photon emission
• 5.5.2(e) Different atoms have different spectral lines which can be used to identify elements within stars · Energy levels and photon emission · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
• 5.5.2(f) Continuous spectrum, emission line spectrum and absorption line spectrum · Energy levels and photon emission
• 5.5.2(g) Transmission diffraction grating used to determine the wavelength of light · Diffraction gratings
• 5.5.2(h) The condition for maxima d sin θ = nλ, where d is the grating spacing · Diffraction gratings
• 5.5.2(i) Use of Wien's displacement law λmax ∝ 1/T to estimate the peak surface temperature (of a star) · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
• 5.5.2(j) Luminosity L of a star; Stefan's law L = 4πr²σT⁴, where σ is the Stefan constant · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
• 5.5.2(k) Use of Wien’s displacement law and Stefan’s law to estimate the radius of a star · Black-body radiation and spectral classes
• 5.5.3(a) Distances measured in astronomical unit (AU), light-year (ly) and parsec (pc) · Star brightness and magnitude
• 5.5.3(b) Stellar parallax · Star brightness and magnitude
• 5.5.3(c) The equation p = 1/d, where p is the parallax in seconds of arc and d is the distance in parsec · Star brightness and magnitude
• 5.5.3(d) The Cosmological principle; universe is homogeneous, isotropic and the laws of physics are universal · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(e) Doppler effect; Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(f) Doppler equation Δλ/λ ≈ Δf/f ≈ v/c for a source of electromagnetic radiation moving relative to an observer · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(g) Hubble's law; v ≈ H0d for receding galaxies, where H0 is the Hubble constant · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(h) Model of an expanding universe supported by galactic red shift · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(i) Hubble constant H0 in both km s⁻¹ Mpc⁻¹ and s⁻¹ units · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(j) The Big Bang theory · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(k) Experimental evidence for the Big Bang theory from microwave background radiation at a temperature of 2.7 K · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(l) The idea that the Big Bang gave rise to the expansion of space-time · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(m) Estimation for the age of the universe; t ≈ H0⁻¹ · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(n) Evolution of the universe after the Big Bang to the present · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law
• 5.5.3(o) Current ideas; universe is made up of dark energy, dark matter, and a small percentage of ordinary matter · The Doppler effect and Hubble's law

6 · PARTICLES AND MEDICAL PHYSICS

• 6.1.1(a) Capacitance; C = Q/V; the unit farad · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.1(b) Charging and discharging of a capacitor or capacitor plates with reference to the flow of electrons · Charging and discharging
• 6.1.1(c) Total capacitance of two or more capacitors in series; 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + … · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.1(d) Total capacitance of two or more capacitors in parallel; C = C1 + C2 + … · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.1(e)(i) Analysis of circuits containing capacitors, including resistors · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.1(e)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate capacitors in both series and parallel combinations using ammeters and voltmeters · assessed in the lab, not here
• 6.1.2(a) P.d. - charge graph for a capacitor; energy stored is area under graph · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.2(b) Energy stored by capacitor; W = (1/2)QV; W = Q²/2C; W = (1/2)V²C · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.2(c) Uses of capacitors as storage of energy · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.1.3(a)(i) Charging and discharging capacitor through a resistor · Charging and discharging
• 6.1.3(a)(ii) Techniques and procedures to investigate the charge and the discharge of a capacitor using both meters and data-loggers · assessed in the lab, not here
• 6.1.3(b) Time constant of a capacitor-resistor circuit; τ = CR · The time constant and exponential decay
• 6.1.3(c) Equations of the form x = x0e^(-t/(CR)) and x = x0(1 - e^(-t/(CR))) for capacitor-resistor circuits · The time constant and exponential decay
• 6.1.3(d) Graphical methods and spreadsheet modelling of the equation ΔQ/Δt = -Q/CR for a discharging capacitor · The time constant and exponential decay
• 6.1.3(e) Exponential decay graph; constant-ratio property of such a graph · The time constant and exponential decay
• 6.2.1(a) Electric fields are due to charges · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.1(b) Modelling a uniformly charged sphere as a point charge at its centre · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.1(c) Electric field lines to map electric fields · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.1(d) Electric field strength; E = F/q · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.2(a) Coulomb's law; F = Qq/4πε0r² for the force between two point charges · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.2(b) Electric field strength E = Q/4πε0r² for a point charge · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.2(c) Similarities and differences between the gravitational field of a point mass and the electric field of a point charge · Comparing electric and gravitational fields
• 6.2.2(d) The concept of electric fields as being one of a number of forms of field giving rise to a force · The field concept
• 6.2.3(a) Uniform electric field strength; E = V/d · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.3(b) Parallel-plate capacitor; permittivity; C = ε0A/d; C = εA/d; ε = εrε0 · Capacitors and energy stored
• 6.2.3(c) Motion of charged particles in a uniform electric field · Coulomb's law and electric field strength
• 6.2.4(a) Electric potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to the point; electric potential is zero at infinity · Electric potential
• 6.2.4(b) Electric potential V = Q/4πε0r at a distance r from a point charge; changes in electric potential · Electric potential
• 6.2.4(c) Capacitance C = 4πε0R for an isolated sphere · Electric potential
• 6.2.4(d) Force-distance graph for a point or spherical charge; work done is area under graph · Electric potential
• 6.2.4(e) Electric potential energy = Vq = Qq/4πε0r at a distance r from a point charge Q · Electric potential
• 6.3.1(a) Magnetic fields are due to moving charges or permanent magnets · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.1(b) Magnetic field lines to map magnetic fields · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.1(c) Magnetic-field patterns for a long straight current-carrying conductor, a flat coil and a long solenoid · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.1(d) Fleming’s left-hand rule · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.1(e)(i) Force on a current-carrying conductor; F = BIL sin θ · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.1(e)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the uniform magnetic flux density between the poles of a magnet using a current-carrying wire and digital balance · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.1(f) Magnetic flux density; the unit tesla · Magnetic flux density and the force on a wire
• 6.3.2(a) Force on a charged particle travelling at right angles to a uniform magnetic field; F = BQv · Force on a moving charge
• 6.3.2(b) Charged particles moving in a uniform magnetic field; circular orbits of charged particles in a uniform magnetic field · Force on a moving charge
• 6.3.2(c) Charged particles moving in a region occupied by both electric and magnetic fields; velocity selector · Force on a moving charge · Cathode rays and the electron
• 6.3.3(a) Magnetic flux φ; the unit weber; φ = BA cos θ · Magnetic flux and flux linkage
• 6.3.3(b) Magnetic flux linkage · Magnetic flux and flux linkage
• 6.3.3(c) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s law · Electromagnetic induction: Faraday and Lenz
• 6.3.3(d)(i) E.m.f. = -rate of change of magnetic flux linkage; E = -Δ(Nφ)/Δt · Electromagnetic induction: Faraday and Lenz
• 6.3.3(d)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate magnetic flux using search coils · Magnetic flux and flux linkage
• 6.3.3(e) Simple a.c. generator · Electromagnetic induction: Faraday and Lenz
• 6.3.3(f)(i) Simple laminated iron-cored transformer; Ns/Np = Vs/Vp = Ip/Is for an ideal transformer · Transformers
• 6.3.3(f)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate transformers · assessed in the lab, not here
• 6.4.1(a) Alpha-particle scattering experiment; evidence of a small charged nucleus · Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom
• 6.4.1(b) Simple nuclear model of the atom; protons, neutrons and electrons · Constituents of the atom
• 6.4.1(c) Relative sizes of atom and nucleus · Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom · Nuclear radius and density
• 6.4.1(d) Proton number; nucleon number; isotopes; Z^AX notation for the representation of nuclei · Constituents of the atom
• 6.4.1(e) Strong nuclear force; short-range nature of the force; attractive to about 3 fm and repulsive below about 0.5 fm · Stable and unstable nuclei
• 6.4.1(f) Radius of nuclei; R = r0A^(1/3), where r0 is a constant and A is the nucleon number · Nuclear radius and density
• 6.4.1(g) Mean densities of atoms and nuclei · Nuclear radius and density
• 6.4.2(a) Particles and antiparticles; electron-positron, proton-antiproton, neutron-antineutron and neutrino-antineutrino · Antimatter and photons
• 6.4.2(b) Particle and its corresponding antiparticle have same mass; electron and positron have opposite charge; proton and antiproton have opposite charge · Antimatter and photons
• 6.4.2(c) Classification of hadrons; proton and neutron as examples of hadrons; all hadrons are subject to both the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force · Classification of particles
• 6.4.2(d) Classification of leptons; electron and neutrino as examples of leptons; all leptons are subject to the weak nuclear force but not the strong nuclear force · Classification of particles
• 6.4.2(e) Simple quark model of hadrons in terms of up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quarks and their respective anti-quarks · Quarks and antiquarks
• 6.4.2(f) Quark model of the proton (uud) and the neutron (udd) · Quarks and antiquarks
• 6.4.2(g) Charges of the up (u), down (d), strange (s), anti-up (anti- u), anti-down (anti- d) and anti-strange (anti- s) quarks as fractions of the elementary charge e · Quarks and antiquarks
• 6.4.2(h) Beta-minus (β^-) decay; beta-plus (β^+) decay · Particle interactions and exchange particles · Conservation laws · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.2(i) Β^- decay in terms of a quark model; d→ u + (-1)⁰e + anti- ν · Quarks and antiquarks · Conservation laws
• 6.4.2(j) Β^+ decay in terms of a quark model; u→ d + (+1)⁰e + ν · Conservation laws
• 6.4.2(k) Balancing of quark transformation equations in terms of charge · Particle interactions and exchange particles · Quarks and antiquarks
• 6.4.2(l) Decay of particles in terms of the quark model · Quarks and antiquarks
• 6.4.3(a) Radioactive decay; spontaneous and random nature of decay · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(b)(i) Α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays; nature, penetration and range of these radiations · Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom
• 6.4.3(b)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to investigate the absorption of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays by appropriate materials · Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom
• 6.4.3(c) Nuclear decay equations for alpha, beta-minus and beta-plus decays; balancing nuclear transformation equations · Stable and unstable nuclei · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(d) Activity of a source; decay constant λ of an isotope; A = λN · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(e)(i) Half-life of an isotope; λt(1/2) = ln(2) · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(e)(ii) Techniques and procedures used to determine the half-life of an isotope such as protactinium · assessed in the lab, not here
• 6.4.3(f)(i) The equations A = A0e^(-λt) and N = N0e^(-λt), where A is the activity and N is the number of undecayed nuclei · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(f)(ii) Simulation of radioactive decay using dice · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(g) Graphical methods and spreadsheet modelling of the equation ΔN/Δt = -λN for radioactive decay · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.3(h) Radioactive dating, e.g. carbon-dating · Radioactive decay and half-life
• 6.4.4(a) Einstein's mass-energy equation; ΔE = Δmc² · Mass-energy and binding energy
• 6.4.4(b) Energy released (or absorbed) in simple nuclear reactions · Mass-energy and binding energy · Fission and fusion
• 6.4.4(c) Creation and annihilation of particle-antiparticle pairs · Antimatter and photons
• 6.4.4(d) Mass defect; binding energy; binding energy per nucleon · Mass-energy and binding energy
• 6.4.4(e) Binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number curve; energy changes in reactions · Mass-energy and binding energy
• 6.4.4(f) Binding energy of nuclei using ΔE = Δmc² and masses of nuclei · Mass-energy and binding energy
• 6.4.4(g) Induced nuclear fission; chain reaction · Fission and fusion
• 6.4.4(h) Basic structure of a fission reactor; components - fuel rods, control rods and moderator · Nuclear reactors and safety
• 6.4.4(i) Environmental impact of nuclear waste · Nuclear reactors and safety
• 6.4.4(j) Nuclear fusion; fusion reactions and temperature · Fission and fusion
• 6.4.4(k) Balancing nuclear transformation equations · Fission and fusion
• 6.5.1(a) Basic structure of an X-ray tube; components - heater (cathode), anode, target metal and high voltage supply · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.1(b) Production of X-ray photons from an X-ray tube · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.1(c) X-ray attenuation mechanisms; simple scatter, photoelectric effect, Compton effect and pair production · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.1(d) Attenuation of X-rays; I = I0e^(-μx), where μ is the attenuation (absorption) coefficient · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.1(e) X-ray imaging with contrast media; barium and iodine · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.1(f) Computerised axial tomography (CAT) scanning; components - rotating X-tube producing a thin fan-shaped X-ray beam, ring of detectors, computer software and display · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.1(g) Advantages of a CAT scan over an X-ray image · X-rays and CT scanning
• 6.5.2(a) Medical tracers; technetium-99m and fluorine-18 · Radionuclide imaging and PET
• 6.5.2(b) Gamma camera; components - collimator, scintillator, photomultiplier tubes, computer and display; formation of image · Radionuclide imaging and PET
• 6.5.2(c) Diagnosis using gamma camera · Radionuclide imaging and PET
• 6.5.2(d) Positron emission tomography (PET) scanner; annihilation of positron-electron pairs; formation of image · Radionuclide imaging and PET
• 6.5.2(e) Diagnosis using PET scanning · Radionuclide imaging and PET
• 6.5.3(a) Ultrasound; longitudinal wave with frequency greater than 20 kHz · Ultrasound imaging
• 6.5.3(b) Piezoelectric effect; ultrasound transducer as a device that emits and receives ultrasound · Ultrasound imaging
• 6.5.3(c) Ultrasound A-scan and B-scan · Ultrasound imaging
• 6.5.3(d) Acoustic impedance of a medium; Z = ρc · Ultrasound imaging
• 6.5.3(e) Reflection of ultrasound at a boundary; Ir/I0 = ((Z2 - Z1)²)/((Z2 + Z1)²) · Ultrasound imaging
• 6.5.3(f) Impedance (acoustic) matching; special gel used in ultrasound scanning · Ultrasound imaging
• 6.5.3(g) Doppler effect in ultrasound; speed of blood in the patient; Δf/f = 2v cos θ/c for determining the speed v of blood · Ultrasound imaging

Each row is a short label for one outcome of the board's own list, written to be found and followed rather than quoted; some sit close to the board's wording and some are our paraphrase. The codes are the board's so you can look the outcome up. A link means the lesson teaches that outcome, not the group it sits in, and it does not promise the same depth the board asks for. The specification itself is the authority: check it when a mark depends on it.